Background and context
I’ve researched the roles most vulnerable to automation and compiled a detailed report on how AI is reshaping the workforce. The report explains why certain jobs are at high risk, cites credible sources, and lists the 100 occupations with the highest estimated automation risk in 2025—along with their risk levels. It also offers insights into patterns across these jobs and practical advice on upskilling and focusing on uniquely human strengths.
- AI disrupts the workforce: Multiple studies suggest that artificial intelligence (AI) and automation will eliminate or fundamentally change millions of jobs. A 2023 Goldman Sachs report estimated that generative AI could “impact” 300 million full-time jobs worldwide and potentially raise global GDP by 7 % through productivity gains . Forbes notes that sectors such as office administration, legal services, architecture, business & finance, sales and even healthcare will feel significant pressure from automation. Although new AI-centric roles will emerge, workers in jobs with highly repetitive duties must prepare for change.
- Why some jobs are at risk: Automation excels at repetitive, rule-based tasks and high‑volume data processing. The Will Robots Take My Job? project uses data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) and academic research to estimate the risk of automation for hundreds of occupations. Jobs that involve routine physical labor, clerical work or predictable machine operation top the list, with many having near‑100 % automation risk. In contrast, occupations requiring complex decision‑making, creativity or interpersonal skills (nursing, therapy, management) have low automation risk.
- Caveats: Automation risk does not guarantee total job loss. In many cases AI will augment rather than fully replace workers, and new roles may emerge in training, maintenance and oversight of AI systems. The list below is a snapshot from 2025 and may evolve as technology and regulation change. Moreover, the underlying data are U.S.‑focused, though the patterns are similar in other advanced economies.
Jobs with the highest automation risk
The table below lists the top 100 occupations with the highest projected risk of automation. Risk levels are taken from the Will Robots Take My Job rankings for 2025, where 100 % indicates complete susceptibility to automation. These jobs generally involve routine manufacturing, clerical or service tasks that can be performed by machines or software. (Percentages below reflect the reported automation risk. A lower risk value may still indicate substantial vulnerability.)
| Rank | Occupation (high‑risk) | Estimated automation risk |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Refuse and recyclable material collectors | 100 % |
| 2 | Packers and packagers, hand | 100 % |
| 3 | Machine feeders and offbearers | 100 % |
| 4 | Laborers and freight, stock and material movers | 100 % |
| 5 | Fallers | 100 % |
| 6 | Dredge operators | 100 % |
| 7 | Shoe machine operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 8 | Credit analysts | 100 % |
| 9 | Title examiners, abstractors and searchers | 100 % |
| 10 | Billing and posting clerks | 100 % |
| 11 | Court reporters and simultaneous captioners | 100 % |
| 12 | Postal service mail sorters, processors and processing machine operators | 100 % |
| 13 | Cooks, fast food | 100 % |
| 14 | Postal service mail carriers | 100 % |
| 15 | Bookkeeping, accounting and auditing clerks | 100 % |
| 16 | Bill and account collectors | 100 % |
| 17 | Telephone operators | 100 % |
| 18 | Motion picture projectionists | 100 % |
| 19 | Correspondence clerks | 100 % |
| 20 | Receptionists and information clerks | 100 % |
| 21 | Credit authorizers, checkers and clerks | 100 % |
| 22 | Switchboard operators, including answering service | 100 % |
| 23 | Brokerage clerks | 100 % |
| 24 | Production, planning and expediting clerks | 100 % |
| 25 | Insurance claims and policy processing clerks | 100 % |
| 26 | Proofreaders and copy markers | 100 % |
| 27 | Mail clerks and mail machine operators (except postal service) | 100 % |
| 28 | Word processors and typists | 100 % |
| 29 | Legal secretaries and administrative assistants | 100 % |
| 30 | Order clerks | 100 % |
| 31 | Office machine operators (except computer) | 100 % |
| 32 | Graders and sorters, agricultural products | 100 % |
| 33 | New accounts clerks | 100 % |
| 34 | Data entry keyers | 100 % |
| 35 | Food batchmakers | 100 % |
| 36 | Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 100 % |
| 37 | Food cooking machine operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 38 | Slaughterers and meat packers | 100 % |
| 39 | Pressers (textile, garment and related) | 100 % |
| 40 | Timing device assemblers and adjusters | 100 % |
| 41 | Shoe and leather workers and repairers | 100 % |
| 42 | Tool grinders, filers and sharpeners | 100 % |
| 43 | Gem and diamond workers | 100 % |
| 44 | Milling and planing machine setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 100 % |
| 45 | Helpers‑production workers | 100 % |
| 46 | Sewing machine operators | 100 % |
| 47 | Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 100 % |
| 48 | Grinding, lapping, polishing and buffing machine tool setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 100 % |
| 49 | Cutting, punching and press machine setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 100 % |
| 50 | Textile winding, twisting and drawing out machine setters, operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 51 | Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 52 | Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 53 | Mixing and blending machine setters, operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 54 | Etchers and engravers | 100 % |
| 55 | Cleaning, washing and metal pickling equipment operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 56 | Semiconductor processing technicians | 100 % |
| 57 | Ophthalmic laboratory technicians | 100 % |
| 58 | Sawing machine setters, operators and tenders (wood) | 100 % |
| 59 | Tire builders | 100 % |
| 60 | Adhesive bonding machine operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 61 | Cutters and trimmers, hand | 100 % |
| 62 | Textile cutting machine setters, operators and tenders | 100 % |
| 63 | Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 100 % |
| 64 | Payroll and timekeeping clerks | 100 % |
| 65 | Medical transcriptionists | 100 % |
| 66 | Extruding, forming, pressing and compacting machine setters, operators and tenders | 99.9 % |
| 67 | Office clerks (general) | 99.45 % |
| 68 | Judicial law clerks | 99.32 % |
| 69 | Cutting and slicing machine setters, operators and tenders | 99.26 % |
| 70 | Tax preparers | 99.13 % |
| 71 | Patternmakers (metal & plastic) | 98.97 % |
| 72 | Heat treating equipment setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 98.36 % |
| 73 | Electromechanical equipment assemblers | 98.24 % |
| 74 | Bridge and lock tenders | 98.20 % |
| 75 | Gambling and sports book writers and runners | 98.13 % |
| 76 | Court, municipal and license clerks | 97.59 % |
| 77 | Woodworking machine setters, operators and tenders (except sawing) | 97.54 % |
| 78 | Telemarketers | 97.49 % |
| 79 | Glass blowers, molders, benders and finishers | 97.47 % |
| 80 | Loading and moving machine operators, underground mining | 97.27 % |
| 81 | Parking attendants | 97.17 % |
| 82 | Medical records specialists | 97.09 % |
| 83 | Extruding and forming machine setters, operators and tenders (synthetic & glass fibers) | 96.78 % |
| 84 | Farm labor contractors | 96.63 % |
| 85 | Gambling cage workers | 96.46 % |
| 86 | Molders, shapers and casters (except metal & plastic) | 96.26 % |
| 87 | Fast food and counter workers | 96.21 % |
| 88 | Logging equipment operators | 96.13 % |
| 89 | Couriers and messengers | 96.12 % |
| 90 | Forging machine setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 95.99 % |
| 91 | Financial clerks | 95.79 % |
| 92 | Ushers, lobby attendants and ticket takers | 95.58 % |
| 93 | Molding, coremaking and casting machine setters, operators and tenders (metal & plastic) | 95.58 % |
| 94 | Secretaries and administrative assistants (except legal, medical and executive) | 94.81 % |
| 95 | Sewers, hand | 94.46 % |
| 96 | Painting, coating and decorating workers | 93.80 % |
| 97 | Foundry mold and coremakers | 93.73 % |
| 98 | Technical writers | 93.58 % |
| 99 | Agricultural equipment operators | 93.56 % |
| 100 | Cytotechnologists | 93.55 % |
Patterns and insights
- Routine tasks are vulnerable: The occupations with the highest automation risk share common traits — they involve repetitive clerical duties (e.g., data entry keyers, order clerks), straightforward machine operation (sewing machine operators, milling machine setters), or predictable service roles (telemarketers, parking attendants). These tasks can be encoded into algorithms or performed by robots with high precision.
- Clerical and administrative roles: Many office jobs like billing clerks, bookkeeping clerks, payroll clerks and secretaries appear in the top 100. Advances in AI-driven software automate data entry, scheduling, document drafting and even legal discovery, reducing demand for these positions.
- Manufacturing and production: Jobs in textile, metal, plastics and food processing (e.g., extruding and drawing machine operators, meat packers, textile machine operators) are highly automatable. Robotics and computer‑controlled machinery can perform these repetitive tasks around the clock with minimal human intervention.
- Service roles: Roles such as telemarketers, parking attendants, mail clerks and fast‑food workers are at risk as AI‑powered chatbots, autonomous kiosks and self‑driving vehicles take over routine interactions and deliveries.
- Highly trained professions can still be vulnerable: Some specialized roles like credit analysts, tax preparers and even technical writers appear with high risk scores. While these jobs require knowledge, much of their routine analysis or drafting can be automated by AI models that process vast amounts of data and generate documents.
What workers can do
- Upskill and transition: Experts emphasise that AI is not only eliminating jobs but also creating new ones. The World Economic Forum reported that although 85 million roles may be displaced, around 97 million new roles will emerge that blend human and AI skills (e.g., data science, AI monitoring and machine learning engineering) . Workers in high‑risk jobs should proactively learn digital skills, data literacy and AI‑assisted tools to transition into emerging roles.
- Focus on uniquely human skills: Jobs involving creativity, empathy, critical thinking and complex problem solving are less susceptible to automation. Healthcare workers, teachers, managers and therapists remain in high demand because they provide human connection and judgement that current AI cannot replicate.
- Embrace AI augmentation: Even in high‑risk sectors, workers can adopt AI as a tool rather than see it as a threat. For example, accountants who leverage AI software for routine tasks can focus more on strategic advisory services. Becoming proficient at supervising and interpreting AI systems is an effective way to remain valuable.
Conclusion
AI is transforming the labour market, automating routine work and unlocking productivity gains. The list above shows the occupations with the highest estimated risk of replacement by AI and automation. However, automation does not equate to inevitable job loss; human roles will evolve. By upskilling, focusing on creative and interpersonal strengths, and collaborating with AI systems, workers can adapt to the new era and find opportunities in an AI‑augmented economy.
Sources and tether citations used in the report:
- “Jobs at high risk of automation” – Will Robots Take My Job? (2025 ranking of occupations by automation risk).
– Provides the list of occupations ranked by automation risk, including risk percentages and median wages. - Forbes article: “Goldman Sachs Predicts 300 Million Jobs Will Be Lost Or Degraded By Artificial Intelligence” (March 31 2023).
– Discusses Goldman Sachs’ estimate that generative AI could impact 300 million full-time jobs and highlights sectors likely to be disrupted by automation. - World Economic Forum press release and report (2020).
– Indicates that while 85 million jobs may be displaced by automation, about 97 million new roles are expected to emerge that blend human and AI skills. - EmployTest HR blog: “What Jobs Will AI Replace and Create?” (2023).
– Explains why AI threatens certain roles and notes that professions requiring empathy, creativity and interpersonal skills (e.g., teachers, healthcare workers) are relatively safe from automation.
These citations support the claims about the scale of potential job displacement, the reasons why certain occupations are at high risk, and the broader context of new job creation alongside automation.
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